India’s growing urbanisation has boosted the demand for transportation in cities and surrounding areas, with commuters making many long daily trips. This has resulted in an increased demand for public transportation. Public transportation accounts for 30% of journeys in cities with populations of one to two million, 42% in cities with populations of two to five million, and 63% in cities with more than five million populations.
However, due to the insufficiency of public transit in fulfilling demand, reliance on private vehicles has grown tremendously. As a result, between 1961 and 2011, the number of cities in India expanded threefold (from 2,363 to 7,935), and the urban population increased fivefold (from 79 million to 377 million), while the number of private vehicles climbed 200 times (from 0.7 million to 142 million). Metropolitan cities account for most of this private vehicular expansion, with New Delhi at the forefront.
In Indian cities, intermediate public transportation (IPT) modes such as auto-rickshaws, cycle rickshaws, battery rickshaws, and taxis account for up to 8% of daily trips. IPT modes are convenient but expensive to utilise; frequently, they cost the commuter more than 50% of the overall fee. Furthermore, compared to public transportation systems, they can only convey a limited number of commuters, taking up more road space.
Commuters may also encounter site-specific difficulties. For example, public transit may be too far to reach, necessitate navigating uneven footpaths and dangerous street crossings, or may not be safe, particularly for female passengers. Furthermore, an unfavourable and dangerous pedestrian environment forces commuters to rely on private vehicles.
The extra time and hassle involved in travelling from home to a transit station and from the station to the destination is an essential disincentive to public transportation. This is aggravated further by a lack of physical integration for multiple modes at transit terminals, resulting in accessibility concerns that create a mental barrier to public transportation. Deterrents include a need for more information about parking availability, public transportation schedules, and traffic signage.
Low-income groups, those with disabilities, the elderly, women, and people with debilitating medical conditions are among India’s most vulnerable public transportation users. Furthermore, walkways and other pedestrian facilities are not universally accessible, thus discouraging economic, social, and cultural participation.
To address issues and promote public transportation, urban planners and managers have recognised the necessity to develop a city-wide integrated and multimodal transportation system. In India, however, multiple independent agencies plan, administer, and run various kinds of transportation. These agencies need to be accountable to each other and frequently need coordination. At the same time, organisations have yet to be mandated to integrate various public transportation systems and private modes, which is a considerable challenge.
Commuters may use one or more modes of transportation to complete a journey. However, commuters must finish the initial and last portions of their excursions on their own—they must walk, drive, or be driven to the nearest station. Public transit organisations usually provide bus and train services that may constitute the core of such trips. This is known as the ‘first and last mile of the user’s journey, or ‘last-mile connectivity.’ Last-mile connectivity improves a public transportation system’s overall efficiency.
Last-mile connectivity emphasises the importance of planning for an improved commuter environment in the larger context of the station catchment area, as opposed to the existing myopic strategy of station-centric infrastructure.
Last-mile connectivity is critical for shifting private car users to public transportation. Public mass transit systems meet an expanding city’s economic and social needs. As a result, all efforts should be directed at increasing ridership and making it easier for commuters to switch to their preferred mode of transportation. Poor last-mile connectivity forces commuters to rely on private automobiles, exacerbating traffic congestion and increasing journey times, fuel consumption, and pollution.
NMT – The Global Scenario
Polluted air, economic losses, and higher stress levels caused by traffic congestion make it critical for communities worldwide to minimise the number of private cars and establish efficient public transportation solutions. However, while metro, bus, and tram networks serve to alleviate traffic congestion, they must also be financially viable for commuters and operators.
Globally, several new ways are being used to plan for greater transport network access, focusing on NMT (Non-Motorized Transportation). For example, Singapore is implementing its National Cycling Plan (NCP) to use bicycles to offer last-mile connectivity for mass rapid transit systems in Asia. Given the country’s limited land resources, Singapore facilitated a smart first and last-mile strategy by constructing a cycling network as part of the NCP and redesigning streets to allow walkers, cyclists, buses, and cars to cohabit.
The Land Transport Authority (LTA) intends to triple the country’s bike route network to 1,000 by 2040, up from a 2013 commitment to build 700 kilometres of cycling lanes by 2030. The LTA’s ambition of establishing a ’45-minute city with 20-minute towns’ includes expanding Singapore’s bike path network (where commuters need only a 45-minute journey to get to work and 20 minutes to reach amenities within residential towns).
Similarly, the UK is investigating the ‘travel hub’ concept as an alternative to the usual ‘park and ride’ notion of leaving private automobiles in a designated facility and utilising public transportation for the remainder of the route. A travel hub is a bus, tram, metro, or train station that provides more amenities than existing public transportation stops, with walking and cycling being the primary ways of access. In addition, it offers simple access to public transportation and interchange between different types of transportation.
It also provides regular public transportation and clear and thorough travel information. Importantly, when major car parks are required to accommodate private automobiles that are the predominant or exclusive form of access for ‘park and ride facilities, this requirement is eliminated with the ‘travel hubs idea since connection by other modes such as cycling is strengthened.
The European Union supported pilot projects for ‘BiTiBi’ in Barcelona (Spain), Milan (Italy), Liverpool (UK), and Ghent (Belgium) between 2014 and 2017. As a result, according to data, approximately 10% of bicycle parking users at railway stations were formerly automobile users for the entire distance. In comparison, 15% to 20% stopped driving to the train station.
Another project that helps towns develop better transportation strategies is Europe’s Sustainable Urban Mobility Plan (SUMP). A city-specific SUMP analyses the entire functional urban area and anticipates collaboration across policy areas, levels of government, locals, and other key stakeholders. It provides various sustainable transportation solutions for commuters and commodities while considering locals and the urban environment.
Metro Rail Systems
The metro rail system has played an essential role in alleviating urban transportation concerns such as traffic congestion, air and noise pollution, and accidents. It is also a more efficient and secure means of mass transportation. As a result, numerous Indian cities have built or planned to build metro rail transit systems.
At the same time, despite a growing need for transit options, most of the country’s existing metro systems have remained within their planned ridership. Fare increases, poor last-mile connectivity, a lack of integration and operational improvements, and permissive policies for private-vehicle use have all contributed to this deficit (such as the availability of economical or free parking and subsidised road taxes for cars).
While feeder services (shared autos, minibuses, shuttle cabs, or app-based bikes and vehicles) exist for functioning metros, they are limited to a few locations. Last-mile connection is primarily fulfilled via IPT services, which can be costly and limited to specific regions. Furthermore, the infrastructure surrounding metro stations, which comprise the last-mile connectivity system, is outside the purview of metro authorities, posing accessibility challenges for travellers. The lack of dedicated walking and cycling pathways complicates access to metro stations even further.
Although metro agencies have begun to integrate innovative technology and economic models to improve the level of service at metro rail transportation systems, most of these are small-scale pilot projects that provide feeder services to metro systems. There is also a need for more data on the influence of last-mile connectivity services on metro systems or reducing private vehicle usage. This makes determining the relevance of last-mile connectivity for Indian cities difficult.
Last-Mile Connectivity: The Policy framework in India
While India’s principal transportation policies emphasise public transportation, multimodal integration, and non-motorised transport (NMT), they are generally silent on the issue of last-mile connectivity. As more communities across the country establish metro networks, regulations must prioritise the role of last-mile connections in consolidating the benefits of public transportation and achieving sustainable mobility goals.
The 2014 National Urban Transport Policy (NUTP) prioritises human transportation over vehicle movement. First, the movement of pedestrians and people with disabilities, which accounts for zero emissions, is prioritised, followed by NMT (bicycles), public transportation, IPT users, and those who use private modes of transportation. According to the NUTP, this priority structure will assist in minimising congestion and pollution caused by private transportation.
Similarly, for metro networks, pedestrians and NMT modes are preferred for first and last-mile connectivity, and the NUTP mandates that these modes be accessible within 50 metres of metro stations. The following essential element is feeder service pick-up and drop-off facilities (should be positioned fewer than 100 metres from metro station entry and exit structures), followed by IPT stops, private car pick-up and drop-off facilities and parking spaces.
The 2017 Metro Rail Policy of the MoHUA aims at enhancing metro commuters’ last-mile connectivity. The ministry has emphasised feeder bus services, e-rickshaws, clever rentable cycles, e-scooter services, and collaborations with cab aggregators as part of the existing last-mile connectivity measures. Another goal is to ensure that the cheapest mass transit mode is chosen and employed for public transportation. Furthermore, the policy requires that every metro rail design contain plans for feeder networks that increase the catchment area of each metro station by at least five kilometres. The provision of last-mile connectivity via pedestrian walkways, NMT infrastructure, and the inclusion of facilities for IPT modes are necessary prerequisites for receiving any central aid for the planned metro rail projects.
To go beyond traditional practises, metro rail executing agencies such as the Delhi Metro Rail Corporation (DMRC), Bengaluru Metro Rail Corporation Limited (BMRCL), and Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority (MMRDA) are beginning to adopt plans focused on first and last-mile connections.
- The DMRC offers various options to improve last-mile connection, which is essential given the city’s and neighbouring areas’ increasing vehicular congestion and pollution. The DMRC promotes electric mobility through agreements with companies such as YULU (a micro-mobility vehicle company), SmartE (a provider of e-rickshaws), cab aggregator Uber, and others. In addition, the Delhi Transport Corporation currently operates 174 non-AC CNG buses on 32 routes available at 69 metro stations. However, commuter usage is low due to the transient nature of such feeder bus service, particularly during peak hours. This problem can be solved by assessing all routes’ demand levels to improve coverage and operational efficiency.
The Parliamentary Standing Committee on Home Affairs advocated multimodal integration at metro stations in its 2021 report on the traffic situation in Delhi to encourage commuters to use public transportation and discourage the usage of private vehicles for long distances. Multimodal integration plans for 59 stations have been finalised for Phase III of the metro project, with another 96 stations in the works. However, the committee expressed concern that a lack of coordination among the several projects executing agencies (the DMRC, the Public Works Department, and the Municipal Corporation of Delhi) could affect the speed with which these plans are implemented.
- In Bengaluru, the BMRCL has introduced low-cost transit choices such as e-cycle rentals and e-bikes to the city’s current bus service, which is run by the state-owned Bengaluru Metropolitan Transport Corporation (BMTC). The BMTC manages metro feeder bus services that serve 17 metro stations with 1,981 trips per day. In addition, the Bengaluru-based bike-sharing business Bounce operates keyless scooters, while YULU offers e-bikes at numerous metro stations.
- Similarly, last-mile connectivity in Mumbai is expected to improve because new innovative solutions are applied across the city’s currently running Metro Line-1. Before more lines became operational, the MMRDA, World Resources Institute India, and Toyota Mobility Foundation developed the Station Access and Mobility Program to foster public-private partnerships through innovative data and technology-based solutions to improve crowd management and last-mile connectivity to the Mumbai metro. As a result, three startups were chosen to roll out solutions at Metro Line-1 stations: Orbo.ai, MYBYK, and AllMiles. While Orbo.ai employs artificial intelligence to shorten journey time through fare collection gates, MYBK and AllMiles offer app-based transportation for last-mile connection. As a result, Mumbai Metro One Private Limited, the operator of Metro Line-1, collaborated with MYBYK to establish a bicycle-rental business to improve last-mile connectivity.
Metro Rail Transit Systems: Achieving Last-Mile Connectivity
A Symbolic Representation of Last-Mile Connectivity
Structured last-mile connectivity could be critical in retaining and amplifying the sustainability gains from metro rail transit systems and improving the commuter experience. Last-mile connectivity alternatives at metro stations tailored to commuters’ needs would go a long way toward increasing adoption. This can be accomplished in four ways: physical integration, service integration, information integration, and institutional integration.
Achieving Last Mile Connectivity
(i) Physical Integration: Extending the metro rail network to bring stations closer to residential areas and significant destinations, adding new stations to the existing network, creating a comfortable walking and cycling environment near metro stations, and providing infrastructure for e-mobility and shared modes are all effective physical interventions to ensure structured last-mile connectivity systems.
India’s government should explore transit-oriented development within 500 metres of metro corridors to encourage integrated land use and transportation planning. This will stimulate high-density construction near metro stations, allowing more people to live or work nearby and walk straight to the station. Planners also can explore offering ground-level or underground direct access to metro stations from surrounding developments.
While only a tiny portion of a metro rail system’s total cost, access quality directly impacts ridership. An easily accessible station area helps boost metro ridership, enable a barrier-free environment, effectively manage parks, give inexpensive options to commuters, and create dynamic public spaces. This will assist in realising the economic development benefits of metro rail networks while also meeting the needs of passengers.
(ii) Service Integration: Authorities should promote integrated planning of various kinds of transportation in station locations. Integrating various forms of public transportation, IPT, and NMT with metros would result in a higher quality of service at stations and improved connection at station areas for the smooth and orderly movement of vehicle and pedestrian traffic. It is also essential to improve the frequency of feeder services and synchronise frequencies and headways with metro rail services to reduce commuter wait times when changing modes of transportation.
(iii) Institutional Integration: Last-mile connection services are governed by many bodies. Taxis and auto-rickshaws, for example, are typically regulated by state transportation departments. Similarly, urban local governments are responsible for developing bicycle and pedestrian paths, while electrical service providers are responsible for lighting the pathways. The absence of coordination, combined with each institution developing its norms and processes, eventually impedes the implementation of well-intended programmes and objectives. Therefore, Metro rail authorities must work with diverse service providers to smoothly incorporate all last-mile connectivity initiatives.
(iv) Information Integration: The availability of data and technological solutions helps enhance the drive to promote last-mile connectivity. Providing real-time service information on feeder service arrival and departure will encourage commuters to use public transportation. For example, an urban bus service should be integrated with metro rail services such that when a train arrives, bus services are accessible quickly. Similarly, integrating fare payments between feeder services and metro rail and enabling smart cards and cashless fare payments will make life easier for metro rail users.
Conclusion
India’s population is predicted to reach 1.4 billion by 2025, with roughly 40% of the population living in cities. The number of cities with populations greater than 50 million is expected to double by 2025, with 15 cities having populations more significant than 10 million and 85 cities expected to have populations between one million and ten million. This population growth will exacerbate India’s existing strains on public transportation systems.
In India, the size of a city and the percentage of daily commuter journeys are directly related. According to 2008 Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA) research, daily journeys in the top 87 urban centres will double from 228 million in 2007 to 482 million in 2031. This growth has raised a demand for public transportation, which most Indian cities have been unable to meet due to the current imbalance in the modal split favouring private car usage in the face of limited public transportation infrastructure and suboptimal utilisation.
Meutilisationansit systems face the same problems as other forms of public transportation. Commuters must have easy access to metro stations to boost ridership and the effectiveness of India’s metro rail transit systems. However, providing affordable and accessible last-mile connectivity—the transportation alternatives available to a commuter from the start of a trip to the point of accessing a public transit system—is a much-neglected area of planning in Indian cities. This brief evaluates the need to improve and extend public transportation services in Indian cities by integrating diverse transit modes and allowing commuters to effectively move between them to improve last-mile connectivity to metro rail transit systems.
Metro rail transportation systems improve a city’s economic competitiveness by facilitating the rapid movement of people, products, and services. They also reduce per capita vehicle ownership and usage, leading to less traffic congestion, lower parking and transportation expenses, and fewer per capita traffic accidents. Thus, metro rail transit systems foster compact and walkable urban development patterns.
It is essential to provide secure and accessible last-mile connectivity to realise therealisets of metro rail transit networks. Therefore, developing a network of secure and user-friendly last-mile connecting solutions to metro stations is essential for the long-term viability of such a mass transit system.
Getting commuters to their destinations necessitates collaboration among different stakeholders to plan, develop, and deploy a cohesive network of integrated transportation options. New infrastructure constructed to bridge accessibility gaps cannot be adequately utilised for foutilisedent access. Public transportation providers and government entities in charge of streets and infrastructure must collaborate to establish accessible and safe last-mile connectivity services to metro rail transit systems. This would significantly improve people’s quality of life while positively influencing urban economic growth. It may also be an inspiration and development model for other public mass transit networks.
